Dietary intake and food sources of choline in Koreans: findings from Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination survey 2018-2022

Abstract

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Choline is an essential nutrient that plays important roles in the biological functioning of the human body. Insufficient choline intake has been reported worldwide; however, data from the Korean population are limited. This study aimed to estimate the dietary choline intake and identify its major sources in Koreans. SUBJECTS/METHODS: We analyzed the 24-h dietary recall data of 31,789 participants aged >= 1 yr from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2018-2022. Dietary choline intake was calculated using the newly developed choline content of foods. Dietary adequacy was evaluated by comparing sex- and age-specific adequate intake (AI) and tolerable upper intake level (UL). RESULTS: The mean dietary choline intake was 591 mg/day (median: 544 mg/day) in Koreans aged >= 1 yr, which was 143% (median: 132%) of the AI. Approximately 70% of Koreans had intakes between the AI and UL, but nearly 30% consumed less than the AI. Dietary choline intake below the AI was more prevalent among females and older individuals. Three-fifths of the dietary choline intake came from plant-based foods. The main food groups that contributed to dietary choline intake were grains (45.2%), eggs (13.4%), meat (12.2%), fish (7.3%), and vegetables (5.6%). CONCLUSION: Although specific subpopulations were observed to have dietary choline intake below the AI, the overall dietary choline intake among Koreans appeared to be sufficient. This study estimated the dietary choline intake from foods alone. Further research is required to assess the intake of choline-containing compounds and dietary supplements and gain a more comprehensive understanding of choline intake in the Korean population.